What is being done to protect biodiversity in New Zealand?

New Zealand’s commitment to biodiversity conservation is multifaceted. Four key goals drive their efforts: Firstly, a strong emphasis on community engagement, fostering individual responsibility and ensuring local benefits from conservation initiatives. This includes extensive volunteer programs and citizen science projects.

Secondly, the Treaty of Waitangi is central. Protecting the interests of Māori iwi and hapū (tribes and sub-tribes) is paramount, with significant collaboration between the government and Māori communities in conservation planning and management. This often involves restoring traditional land management practices.

Thirdly, the ambitious goal is to halt the decline of native species. This involves tackling invasive species – a huge threat to New Zealand’s unique flora and fauna – through intensive pest control programs, including aerial 1080 drops (sodium fluoroacetate) in remote areas, a controversial but effective method. Predator-free 2050 is a national project to eradicate invasive mammals from significant areas of the country.

Finally, the strategies focus on effective management of protected areas, encompassing a vast network of national parks, reserves, and marine protected areas. These areas safeguard crucial habitats, supporting both research and ecotourism, which play important roles in conservation funding and awareness.

What is the New Zealand conservation strategy?

New Zealand’s conservation strategy, Te Mana o te Taiao – Aotearoa New Zealand Biodiversity Strategy 2025 (ANZBS), is a 30-year plan (2020-2050) crucial for anyone who loves exploring the country’s incredible outdoors. It’s a nationwide effort to protect and restore native plants and animals, ensuring sustainable use of resources for future generations. This means better track maintenance in national parks, more effective pest control impacting hiking experiences (fewer rats means more native birds!), and increased protection of unique ecosystems you can explore, from Fiordland’s breathtaking wilderness to the volcanic landscapes of Tongariro. The strategy focuses on actions at all levels, so you’ll see its impact whether you’re trekking the Abel Tasman Coast Track or kayaking in Doubtful Sound. Essentially, it’s all about ensuring the stunning natural beauty that draws us to adventure in Aotearoa remains vibrant and accessible.

How does New Zealand protect the environment?

New Zealand’s environmental protection is a multifaceted journey. I’ve witnessed firsthand their commitment to sustainable practices. The Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority (EECA), a key player, champions energy efficiency and renewable energy sources like geothermal and hydro, significantly reducing reliance on fossil fuels. This isn’t just about lowering carbon footprints; it’s about leveraging the country’s natural energy abundance. Meanwhile, Land Information New Zealand (LINZ) plays a crucial role in resource management, ensuring responsible land use and sustainable forestry practices, preserving the breathtaking landscapes I’ve explored. Their efforts extend to protecting biodiversity hotspots, including unique flora and fauna found nowhere else on Earth. I’ve seen this in action, from the meticulous management of national parks to initiatives aimed at protecting native species and combating invasive ones. This holistic approach, blending energy policy with responsible land management, is what sets New Zealand apart in its environmental stewardship.

What is special about New Zealand’s nature?

New Zealand’s nature is truly exceptional. Its prolonged isolation for millions of years – a veritable evolutionary island – has resulted in a breathtaking array of flora and fauna found nowhere else on Earth. This unique biodiversity is a testament to the power of isolation. You’ll encounter flightless birds like the iconic kiwi, a national symbol, and the equally fascinating kakapo, a nocturnal parrot. But the wonders extend far beyond birds.

Unique Plant Life: The country boasts a remarkable diversity of plant life, including ancient podocarps, kauri forests (some trees are over 2,000 years old!), and diverse ferns. Many of these are endemic, meaning they exist only in New Zealand.

Fiordland National Park: A UNESCO World Heritage site, offering stunning fjords, towering mountains, and untouched rainforest. Consider a kayaking trip for an unforgettable experience.
Abel Tasman National Park: Known for its golden beaches, turquoise waters, and abundant birdlife. Perfect for hiking and exploring the coastline.
Tongariro National Park: Home to three active volcanoes, providing incredible hiking opportunities with dramatic alpine landscapes. Remember to check weather conditions before you go.

Accessibility: What sets New Zealand apart is the accessibility of its natural wonders. Numerous well-maintained tracks and reserves allow you to easily explore these incredible landscapes, from gentle coastal walks to challenging alpine hikes. This makes it a dream destination for adventurers of all levels.

Conservation Efforts: It’s crucial to acknowledge the significant conservation efforts underway to protect this unique ecosystem. Many areas are dedicated reserves, and responsible tourism practices are paramount to preserving the natural beauty for future generations. Remember to leave no trace and support local initiatives committed to conservation.

Plan your trip strategically to avoid peak season for a more tranquil experience.
Pack layers of clothing as weather can change rapidly.
Learn about the local fauna and flora beforehand to enhance your appreciation.

What are 4 ways we can protect biodiversity?

Protecting biodiversity isn’t just about saving pandas; it’s about safeguarding the incredible tapestry of life that makes our planet so vibrant and, frankly, so travel-worthy. Think of the breathtaking coral reefs I’ve snorkeled in, teeming with life, or the untouched rainforests I’ve trekked through, echoing with the calls of unseen creatures. These experiences, and countless others, are directly threatened by biodiversity loss.

Support local conservation efforts: During my travels, I’ve witnessed firsthand the impactful work of local communities protecting their unique ecosystems. Your support, whether through volunteering your time or donating to reputable organizations, directly contributes to on-the-ground conservation. Look for projects focused on habitat restoration, anti-poaching initiatives, or sustainable tourism practices.

Conscious Consumption: Every purchase has an environmental footprint. Before buying anything, consider its impact on biodiversity. For example, that “cheap” t-shirt likely contributed to unsustainable cotton farming practices which devastate ecosystems. Opt for ethically sourced and sustainably produced goods. Remember those incredible handcrafted souvenirs I found in local markets? They often support small businesses and traditional practices, minimizing environmental damage compared to mass-produced items.

Invest in Biodiversity: This goes beyond simply donating. It involves supporting businesses and industries committed to sustainable practices. Look for eco-lodges that prioritize environmental protection, invest in companies implementing biodiversity offsets, or choose travel agencies with a strong commitment to responsible tourism. My own travel choices reflect this; I actively seek out sustainable options.

Reduce, Reuse, Recycle (and Refuse!): The sheer volume of waste generated globally is staggering. Cutting down on consumption and properly disposing of waste is crucial. I’ve seen firsthand the devastating impact of plastic pollution on marine life during my dives. Reduce your waste by refusing single-use plastics, repairing items instead of replacing them, and diligently recycling. This simple act is a powerful contribution to preserving biodiversity, wherever you are.

What is New Zealand doing to be sustainable?

New Zealand’s commitment to sustainability is evident in its membership of the High Ambition Coalition to End Plastic Pollution. This ambitious coalition aims to create a legally binding global agreement to drastically reduce plastic pollution by 2040. I’ve witnessed firsthand the stunning natural beauty of New Zealand, from the pristine beaches to the dramatic fjords, and understand their dedication to preserving this environment. Beyond this coalition, New Zealand is actively pursuing renewable energy sources, notably geothermal and hydropower, significantly reducing its reliance on fossil fuels. Their efforts extend to sustainable agriculture, with initiatives focused on reducing emissions from livestock and promoting environmentally friendly farming practices. Furthermore, they’re investing heavily in eco-tourism, encouraging responsible travel that minimizes environmental impact. Witnessing these efforts firsthand, it’s clear that New Zealand is not merely paying lip service to sustainability, but actively shaping a future where economic prosperity and environmental protection go hand in hand. The country’s commitment extends beyond just plastic pollution, encompassing a holistic approach to environmental stewardship. The success of their initiatives is a testament to their forward-thinking policies and the dedication of its people.

What are the conservation strategies?

Conservation strategies aren’t just about saving individual animals; they’re intricate plans, meticulously designed like a complex travel itinerary across diverse ecosystems. Think of it as a multi-pronged approach, a coordinated series of actions – from habitat restoration projects echoing the ancient rhythms of nature, to meticulously planned reintroduction programs mirroring the intricate dance of wildlife migration I’ve witnessed across continents. These strategies are driven by the specific needs of threatened species and their habitats, each action carefully calibrated to achieve the overarching goals of a habitat plan. The core principle is mitigation – actively reducing the negative impacts humans have, whether it’s the encroachment of agriculture I’ve seen devastating natural areas in Southeast Asia, or the pollution choking coral reefs in the Pacific. It’s about finding that delicate balance, allowing nature to thrive while accommodating human activities. Success hinges on understanding the unique requirements of each species and its ecosystem, a knowledge born from years of painstaking research and on-the-ground observation, much like crafting the perfect travel route requires understanding the terrain and local conditions.

What is the biggest environmental issue in New Zealand?

New Zealand, with its stunning landscapes, faces some serious environmental challenges. While it’s hard to pick just *one* biggest issue, a recent report highlights several critical threats intertwined and impacting the country’s unique biodiversity and future.

Water: Altered water flows are devastating freshwater ecosystems. Think of the iconic trout rivers – their health is directly linked to the amount and timing of water released from dams and diverted for irrigation. This isn’t just about fishing; it’s about the entire delicate balance of these environments. Many rivers are struggling, and this impacts not only the flora and fauna but also the Māori who hold deep cultural connections to these waterways.

Ocean Health: Our fishing practices, while supporting a vital industry, need careful management. Overfishing and destructive fishing methods damage habitats and deplete fish stocks. As a seasoned traveller, I’ve seen firsthand the impact of unsustainable fishing practices globally – New Zealand needs to remain vigilant to protect its marine environment, a major draw for tourists and crucial to the nation’s economy.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions: New Zealand boasts a relatively small population but has a surprisingly high per capita greenhouse gas emission rate. This is largely due to agriculture, particularly livestock farming. The impact of climate change is already apparent, with rising sea levels threatening coastal communities and altering weather patterns impacting both agriculture and tourism. This isn’t just an environmental concern; it’s an economic one too.

Here’s a summary of the interconnected issues:

Water flow changes: Impacts freshwater ecosystems and Māori cultural heritage.
Unsustainable fishing: Threatens ocean biodiversity and the fishing industry.
High greenhouse gas emissions: Primarily from agriculture, accelerating climate change with far-reaching consequences.

Understanding these interconnected issues is vital. Sustainable tourism practices, responsible land management, and innovative approaches to agriculture are crucial for mitigating these challenges and preserving New Zealand’s environmental treasures for future generations.

What are the sustainable practices in New Zealand?

New Zealand’s commitment to sustainability is seriously impressive, especially if you’re an outdoorsy type like me. Their Zero Carbon Act (2019) sets a net-zero emissions target (excluding biogenic methane) by 2050 – a massive undertaking. This means five-yearly emissions budgets and detailed reduction plans, influencing everything from how we hike to how we power our huts. It’s not just about reducing carbon; it’s about preserving the incredible landscapes that draw us to New Zealand in the first place. Think about the impact on the stunning fiords, the pristine beaches, the majestic mountains – sustainable practices are vital to keeping them that way for future generations of adventurers.

Beyond the legislation, you’ll find a strong emphasis on renewable energy – hydro, wind, geothermal. Many lodges and campsites are embracing sustainable practices, from composting toilets to solar power. Hiking trails are meticulously maintained to minimize environmental impact, and there’s a growing movement towards responsible tourism, encouraging visitors to leave only footprints and take only memories. This all means a cleaner environment, healthier ecosystems, and a more rewarding experience for everyone who enjoys the outdoors in New Zealand.

It’s also worth noting that the biogenic methane exclusion in the 2050 target reflects the importance of agriculture to New Zealand’s economy and culture. This is an ongoing challenge, with research focusing on reducing emissions from livestock, showing that sustainable practices are not just an environmental issue but a deeply embedded economic and societal one.

What makes New Zealand so beautiful?

New Zealand’s beauty is unparalleled for the active traveler. Imagine this: snow-capped Southern Alps dominating the landscape, perfect for challenging climbs and breathtaking views. Fiordland National Park offers incredible kayaking opportunities through dramatic fjords carved by glaciers – Milford Sound is a must-do, but Doubtful Sound offers a more secluded experience. The glaciers themselves, like Franz Josef and Fox, are accessible via guided hikes and offer incredible ice-climbing adventures (proper gear and experience required!).

Beyond the mountains, the country boasts an extensive network of hiking trails, from the multi-day Queen Charlotte Track offering stunning coastal views to shorter day hikes in countless national parks. The abundance of lakes, like Lake Wanaka and Lake Tekapo, provide stunning backdrops for cycling or simply relaxing by the shore.

The rugged coastline is a playground for various activities:

Sea kayaking: Explore hidden coves and encounter marine wildlife.
Surfing: Numerous beaches offer world-class waves for all levels.
Rock climbing: The varied terrain provides challenging climbs for experienced climbers.

And don’t forget the inland adventures:

Mountain biking: Numerous trails cater to all abilities, from gentle riverside paths to challenging downhill runs.
White-water rafting: Several rivers offer exhilarating rapids for adrenaline junkies.
Hiking and tramping: Explore countless trails through lush forests and across alpine meadows, encountering sheep, cows, and deer along the way. Remember to plan your route and pack accordingly; conditions can change rapidly.

What is New Zealand most beautiful nature?

New Zealand’s stunning natural beauty is best experienced through active exploration. Here are some must-do adventures:

Franz Josef Glacier, West Coast: Heli-hiking is a thrilling way to get up close to this magnificent glacier. Expect breathtaking views and a challenging but rewarding hike across ice and snow. Remember to book a guided tour – safety is paramount.
Hooker Valley Track, Aoraki Mt Cook National Park: This relatively easy, well-maintained track offers stunning views of Aoraki/Mount Cook, the highest peak in New Zealand. Allow ample time for photography – you’ll want to capture the turquoise waters of Hooker Lake and the towering mountain range. Pack plenty of water and snacks.
Poor Knights Islands, Northland: Dive or snorkel in crystal-clear waters teeming with marine life. This is a world-renowned diving destination; expect to see diverse fish, playful dolphins, and possibly even sharks. Book a dive tour in advance and ensure you have appropriate certification.
Kepler Track, Fiordland National Park: A challenging multi-day trek through varied landscapes, encompassing lush forests, alpine meadows, and stunning lake views. This track requires excellent fitness and proper preparation, including carrying all your gear. Bookings are essential.
Punakaiki Pancake Rocks, West Coast: While not as physically demanding, the Pancake Rocks and Blowholes are a must-see. Witness the dramatic power of the ocean as waves crash through the unique rock formations. Check the tide times for the best viewing experience.

Important Note: New Zealand’s weather can change rapidly. Always check the forecast before embarking on any adventure and pack accordingly. Appropriate footwear and clothing are crucial for comfortable and safe exploration.

What are the methods of preserving our biodiversity?

Protecting our planet’s incredible biodiversity requires a multifaceted approach, and in-situ conservation – safeguarding species in their natural homes – is a cornerstone. Think of it as leaving nature undisturbed, allowing ecosystems to thrive organically.

This involves designating protected areas, each with its unique role:

Biosphere reserves: These are large-scale areas showcasing the interplay between humans and nature. I’ve witnessed firsthand in the Amazon how these reserves allow for sustainable development alongside biodiversity protection, often incorporating buffer zones to minimize human impact.
National parks: These iconic areas often prioritize wilderness preservation, offering unparalleled opportunities for wildlife viewing and research. From the Serengeti’s vast plains to the towering peaks of Yosemite, the scale and breathtaking beauty of these parks always leave a lasting impression.
Wildlife sanctuaries: These focus more narrowly on specific species or habitats, often providing refuge for threatened animals and plants. I remember a sanctuary in Borneo dedicated to orangutans—a truly humbling experience to see these majestic creatures in their natural habitat.
Biodiversity hotspots: These regions, often rich in endemic species, are prioritized for conservation efforts due to their exceptional vulnerability. The sheer number of unique species concentrated in places like the Galapagos Islands makes their protection absolutely critical.
Gene sanctuaries: These hold crucial genetic material, safeguarding the future of species even if their wild populations decline. The cutting-edge technology involved here, coupled with traditional methods of seed-banking, offers a powerful back-up.
Sacred groves: These ancient protected areas, often rooted in indigenous traditions, offer powerful examples of long-term biodiversity conservation. Their cultural significance ensures their continued protection, safeguarding often-overlooked ecosystems.

The success of in-situ conservation relies not only on designating these areas but also on robust monitoring, community involvement, and sustainable management practices. It’s about fostering a harmonious relationship between humans and nature—a truly rewarding, if challenging, endeavor.

What are the four 5 threats to biodiversity?

Having traversed the globe, witnessed the breathtaking tapestry of life in its myriad forms, I’ve also borne witness to its unraveling. Five insidious threads are choking the vibrant fabric of biodiversity: climate change, a relentless shift altering habitats beyond recognition; pollution, a toxic blanket smothering ecosystems; habitat loss, the relentless encroachment of human development, fracturing natural landscapes and isolating populations; overexploitation, the unsustainable harvesting of species pushing them to the brink; and invasive species, opportunistic conquerors disrupting delicate ecological balances. These aren’t merely abstract concepts; I’ve seen firsthand the bleached coral reefs gasping for breath under warming waters, the polluted rivers devoid of life, the shrinking forests replaced by barren fields, the depleted fishing grounds, and the native flora and fauna struggling to compete with alien newcomers. The scale of this crisis is staggering, demanding immediate and concerted action. Consider that even seemingly minor changes, like the introduction of a single non-native plant, can cascade through an entire ecosystem with devastating consequences. Protecting biodiversity isn’t just about preserving pretty pictures; it’s about safeguarding the very systems that sustain us – clean air, fresh water, fertile soil, and a stable climate.

What are the biggest threats to New Zealand?

New Zealand, a nation renowned for its stunning landscapes and peaceful nature, faces a complex tapestry of threats. While the idyllic image often overshadows these challenges, understanding them is crucial. Armed conflict in the Pacific region poses a significant risk, not only directly impacting New Zealand but also destabilizing the wider area, potentially affecting trade and tourism – vital components of the Kiwi economy. My travels throughout the Pacific have highlighted the interconnectedness of these nations; instability in one area ripples outwards.

Beyond traditional warfare, cyberattacks and disruptions to essential services, such as satellite communications and internet infrastructure, represent a growing concern. This is a threat I’ve witnessed firsthand in other parts of the world, where vital infrastructure has been compromised, causing widespread chaos. New Zealand’s reliance on these systems makes it particularly vulnerable.

Finally, mass migration, especially uncontrolled arrivals by sea, presents logistical and societal challenges. While immigration is a vital part of New Zealand’s growth, managing large-scale, unexpected influxes requires careful planning and resources. My experience in other countries grappling with similar issues highlights the need for proactive strategies to ensure a smooth integration process.

What are the 3 biggest threats to biodiversity right now?

The biggest threats to biodiversity are interwoven and amplify each other, creating a perfect storm for the planet’s incredible variety of life. While five major threats are commonly cited – climate change, pollution, habitat loss, overexploitation of species, and invasive species – pinpointing just three is tricky, as they’re all inextricably linked.

However, if forced to choose three overarching threats, I’d highlight:

Climate Change: This isn’t just about rising temperatures. Shifting weather patterns, intensified storms, and rising sea levels are drastically altering habitats faster than many species can adapt. I’ve witnessed firsthand the bleaching of coral reefs in Southeast Asia – once vibrant underwater cities, now ghostly white skeletons. This isn’t just aesthetically devastating; it’s a collapse of entire ecosystems.
Habitat Loss and Degradation: Deforestation, urbanization, and unsustainable agricultural practices are the primary drivers here. Consider the Amazon rainforest, the lungs of the planet, being rapidly cleared for farmland and logging. The loss of these habitats isn’t just a reduction in space; it’s a direct assault on countless species’ homes and food sources. My travels through the Amazon highlighted the heartbreaking contrast between pristine jungle and the scarred landscapes of deforestation.
Overexploitation: This encompasses poaching, overfishing, and unsustainable harvesting of resources. The illegal wildlife trade fuels the extinction crisis, targeting iconic animals like elephants and rhinos for their ivory and horns. Overfishing is devastating ocean ecosystems, leading to depleted fish stocks and harming the entire food chain. Witnessing the stark reality of ghost nets in the Pacific – deadly fishing gear abandoned at sea – was a truly sobering experience.

Pollution, while not explicitly listed as one of the three, acts as a potent multiplier for all three, further stressing already vulnerable ecosystems. It’s crucial to remember these threats are interconnected, and addressing them requires a holistic approach. Simple actions like supporting sustainable businesses and reducing our carbon footprint can make a real difference.

How to improve sustainable tourism in New Zealand?

Improving sustainable tourism in New Zealand? It’s all about accountability first. We need hard data – measuring and reporting Tourism New Zealand’s emissions, then setting concrete reduction targets (which they aimed for by December 2025). That’s the baseline.

Beyond that, it’s about action. Partnering with local communities and businesses is crucial. Think initiatives that minimize environmental impact while maximizing the positive effects on local communities. Support sustainable operators certified by Qualmark – they’re leading the way in regenerative tourism, which goes beyond sustainability by actively restoring the environment. This could involve projects focused on native reforestation, reducing waste, and minimizing carbon footprints from transport.

For us active tourists, that translates to choosing eco-friendly accommodations, utilizing public transport or cycling where possible, supporting local guides committed to environmental protection, and minimizing our own waste. Think multi-day hikes instead of short trips, reducing transportation needs, and exploring lesser-known trails to disperse impact. Responsible adventure tourism isn’t just about the thrill; it’s about preserving New Zealand’s stunning landscapes for future generations.

What are the 4 C’s of conservation?

The 4 C’s of conservation – Cooperation, Communication, Consultation, and Coordination (often a fourth ‘C’ is added) – aren’t just bureaucratic buzzwords; they’re crucial for successful land and resource management. They represent a practical approach to balancing competing interests in conservation.

Cooperation means working collaboratively with various stakeholders. This includes landowners, local communities, indigenous groups, government agencies (at all levels), and even private organizations. Think of collaborative efforts on habitat restoration projects, where everyone contributes their expertise and resources.

Communication is key to transparent and effective conservation. Open dialogue and information sharing are vital. This involves clear and accessible explanations of conservation goals, methods, and potential impacts to all involved parties. It also includes actively listening to concerns and feedback.

Consultation goes beyond simple communication. It implies actively seeking input from stakeholders, incorporating their perspectives into planning and decision-making processes. This participatory approach ensures that conservation initiatives are locally relevant and supported.

Coordination (the often-implied fourth C) focuses on the efficient management of resources and efforts among different actors. This avoids duplication, ensures consistency, and maximizes the impact of conservation activities. It involves effective planning and scheduling among diverse groups working towards the same objective. For example, coordinating wildlife surveys across jurisdictional boundaries to get a complete picture of a species’ population.

Understanding and applying these 4 C’s (or 5) are essential not just for official conservation bodies, but also for responsible travelers. Respecting local customs, communicating with local guides, and supporting locally owned businesses all contribute to the success of conservation efforts in the places we visit.

Here’s how this looks in practice:

Supporting sustainable tourism: Choosing eco-lodges and tour operators committed to conservation.
Respecting wildlife and their habitats: Maintaining a safe distance, avoiding disturbing animals or their nesting areas, and leaving no trace.
Educating yourself and others: Learning about the local environment and sharing your knowledge with others to promote responsible travel.

What are the 4 types of conservation?

Environmental Conservation: This is the broadest category, focusing on preserving ecosystems as a whole. From the Amazon rainforest to the Arctic tundra, it’s about protecting habitats, managing resources sustainably, and mitigating climate change. As a seasoned traveler, I’ve witnessed firsthand the devastating impact of deforestation and pollution on fragile ecosystems. Eco-tourism, when done responsibly, can be a powerful tool for funding and promoting environmental conservation. Remember to choose sustainable travel options and support locally-owned businesses that prioritize environmental protection.

Animal Conservation: This focuses on protecting individual species and their populations, from majestic elephants to tiny insects. It encompasses habitat protection, anti-poaching efforts, and captive breeding programs. In my travels, I’ve observed the critical role played by local communities in conservation efforts. Supporting local wildlife sanctuaries and participating in responsible wildlife viewing contributes significantly to their success.

Marine Conservation: Our oceans are vital, yet face immense pressure from pollution, overfishing, and climate change. This area focuses on protecting marine ecosystems, coral reefs, and ocean species. Diving in pristine coral reefs or witnessing the graceful movements of whales are incredible experiences, but sustainable practices are vital to preserve these wonders for future generations. Choose operators committed to responsible diving and whale watching.

Human Conservation: This often overlooked area focuses on the well-being of human populations, particularly those who live in close proximity to natural resources. Sustainable development, access to clean water and healthcare, and fair economic opportunities are essential. Understanding the lives and livelihoods of the communities you visit while traveling enriches your experience and allows you to appreciate their role in conservation efforts.

These four types aren’t mutually exclusive; they are deeply interconnected. Successful conservation requires a holistic approach that considers the environment, animals, marine life, and human communities.